Ancient Philosophy

The Rise of Greek Civilization

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Bertrand Russell	Frederick Copleston A History of Philosophy	Anthony Kenny A New History of Western Philosophy
1Early Greek Philosophy In all history, nothing is so surprising or so difficult to account for as the sudden rise of civilization in Greece. Much of what makes civilization had already existed for thousands of years in Egypt and Mesopotamia, and had spread thence to neighboring countries. But certain elements had been lacking until the Greeks supplied them. What they achieved in art and literature is familiar to everybody, but what they did in the purely intellectual realm is even more exceptional. They invented mathematics and science and philosophy; they first wrote history as opposed to mere annals; they speculated freely about the nature of the world and the ends of life, without being bound in the fetters of any inherited orthodoxy.	Russell is certainly right to emphasize the revolutionary character of Greek thought. However, one must be careful not to exaggerate the discontinuity between Greek civilization and what preceded it. The Greeks borrowed from Egypt and Mesopotamia in various ways - in mathematics, for instance, and in astronomy. What was peculiarly Greek was the spirit of free inquiry and rational speculation.	Russell's emphasis on the suddenness of Greek achievement is somewhat misleading. Recent archaeological discoveries have shown more continuity between Greek civilization and earlier cultures than was once thought. The Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations provided important foundations. Nevertheless, the Greek contribution to philosophy, as Russell argues, was indeed unprecedented.
2Mathematics and Abstraction The Greeks, in their great period, discovered mathematics and the art of deductive reasoning. Geometry, in particular, they developed to a remarkable extent. The influence of geometry upon philosophy and scientific method has been profound. Geometry starts from axioms which are (or are deemed to be) self-evident, and proceeds, by deductive reasoning, to arrive at theorems that are very far from self-evident. The axioms and theorems are held to be true of actual space, which is something given in experience. It appeared to be possible to discover things about the actual world by thinking rather than by observing.	The development of Greek mathematics, particularly geometry, had indeed a profound influence on Greek philosophy. Plato, for example, was deeply influenced by mathematical reasoning, and held that true knowledge must have the certainty of mathematical demonstrations. However, Russell perhaps overemphasizes the empirical aspect - for Plato, mathematical truths were not primarily about 'actual space' but about eternal Forms.	Russell correctly identifies the importance of Greek mathematics for the development of philosophy. The deductive method of geometry became a model for philosophical reasoning. However, we should note that Greek mathematics was not purely abstract - it had practical applications in architecture, engineering, and astronomy. The relationship between mathematical abstraction and empirical application was more complex than Russell suggests.
3Religion and Rationality The Greeks, in their great period, were not bound by religious orthodoxy. Greek religion, in its primitive form, was a matter of ceremonies and observances, not of dogma. There was no sacred book, no priestly caste with a monopoly of knowledge and authority. This left men's minds free to speculate, and encouraged the development of individual genius. The substitution, for the worship of nature and of ancestors, of the worship of the Olympian gods, was a decisive step in the development of Greek civilization. The Olympian gods, while immortal, were conceived on the model of human beings, with human passions and failings.	While it is true that Greek religion lacked the rigid dogmatism of some other ancient religions, Russell goes too far in suggesting that it placed no constraints on thought. The trial of Socrates on charges of impiety shows that there were limits to acceptable religious speculation. Moreover, mystery religions and orphic cults did impose certain beliefs on their adherents.	Russell's account of Greek religion is oversimplified. While the civic religion was indeed relatively tolerant, this did not mean complete freedom of thought. Philosophers who denied the gods or criticized traditional beliefs risked prosecution. Anaxagoras was exiled for impiety, and Socrates was executed. The relationship between philosophy and religion in ancient Greece was more complex and often more tense than Russell indicates.